Women’s Economic Empowerment and Intimate Partner Violence in Kerala: A Mixed-Methods Study

Abstract

Kerala occupies an ambiguous position in feminist scholarship on South Asia. Long celebrated for its high female literacy, low fertility, and favourable sex ratio the so-called “Kerala model” of human development the state nevertheless exhibits persistent gender inequalities in labour force participation, property ownership, decision-making power, and exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV). This study examines the gap between formal indicators of gender equality and women’s lived experiences of patriarchal authority by analysing how economic empowerment is negotiated within households and how such negotiations shape vulnerability to IPV. The analysis draws on Kandiyoti’s concept of the “patriarchal bargain,” Sen’s framework of cooperative conflicts, Kabeer’s resources–agency–achievements model, and Crenshaw’s intersectional approach. A mixed-methods convergent design integrates a survey of 412 ever-married women across four districts of Kerala with thirty in-depth interviews and four focus group discussions conducted between January and August 2024. Quantitative findings show that women with independent income are 1.42 times more likely to participate in major household decisions, yet display a non-linear relationship with IPV exposure, supporting the “backlash hypothesis.” Qualitative findings reveal that women negotiate patriarchal bargains by exchanging visible deference for substantive autonomy in culturally feminised domains. Caste and class significantly shape these negotiations.The study argues that economic empowerment, while necessary, is insufficient for emancipation. Effective policy must address the broader discursive and institutional contexts within which women’s agency is exercised.