International Journal of History and Archaeology Research Studies (IJHARS)
Welcome to the International Journal of History and Archaeology Research Studies (IJHARS), a platform dedicated to the exploration and preservation of our valuable historical heritage. The journal serves as a valuable resource for scholars, professionals, and enthusiasts by providing knowledge and inspiration. It offers a space for cutting-edge research, captivating narratives, and thought-provoking insights into the fascinating worlds of history and archaeology. IJHARS strictly adheres to the policies and ethical standards prescribed by the UGC-CARE, ensuring the highest level of academic integrity and scholarly excellence. Our goal is to foster a community of people who have a strong enthusiasm for delving into the marvels of history. Collaboratively, our aim is to uncover the mysteries of ancient civilizations, decipher the complexities of historical events, and explore the diverse range of human experiences throughout history. Our publication is dedicated to providing in-depth research and expert analysis, offering a diverse collection of historical and archaeological studies. We aim to shed light on the diverse history we all share and how it continues to shape our society, fostering a sense of inspiration for what lies ahead. Join us on an extraordinary journey, delving into the enigmas of the past, discovering concealed wisdom, and untangling the complex web of human history. Uncover the intricate history, illuminate the current state of affairs, and forge a path toward a future brimming with wisdom and insight. Welcome to the Journal of History and Archaeology, where we invite you to embark on an enlightening journey. Welcome aboard, fellow adventurers in the pursuit of knowledge - let the journey begin. Title International Journal of History and Archaeology Research Studies (IJHARS) Frequency Quarterly ISSN 3049-1622(ONLINE) Publisher Eduschool Academic Research and Publishers Chief Editor Dr. Vinodkumar Kalloickal Copyright Eduschool Academic Research and Publishers Starting Year 2024 Subject History Language English Publication Format Online Phone No 0484-2929383 Email Id info@eduresearchpublication.com, ex_editor@eduresearchpublication.com Website www.eduresearchpublication.com Address Eduschool Academic Research and Publishers Airport Road, Nayathode Kavala, Angamaly 683572, Kerala.
Eduschool Academic Research and Publishers
Megadrought And the Terminal Classic Maya Collapse Controversy
This article evaluates the role of prolonged drought in the Terminal Classic Maya collapse (c. 800–1000 CE) by integrating high-resolution paleoclimatic proxy data with archaeological evidence of political fragmentation, warfare, and ecological degradation. Oxygen isotope records from the Yok Balum speleothem, gypsum deposition data from Lake Chichancanab, and titanium concentrations from the Cariaco Basin marine core converge to confirm that the ninth and tenth centuries witnessed the most severe and sustained droughts of the past two millennia in the circum-Caribbean region. The article critically examines Richardson Gill's monocausal drought thesis, acknowledging that his emphasis on climatic stress has been vindicated by subsequent paleoclimatic discoveries, while demonstrating that drought alone cannot account for the regional variability of the collapse. Cities in the northern Yucatán flourished during the same period that southern lowland polities were abandoned; coastal and riverine settlements persisted; and some southern cities declined before the worst drought episodes, while others survived into the tenth century. Drawing on Turner and Sabloff's critique of monocausal reasoning and Lucero's model linking water management to political legitimacy, the article argues that the Terminal Classic crisis was a compound event in which climatic stress interacted with the structural vulnerabilities of divine kingship, elite competition, deforestation, and soil degradation to produce regionally differentiated outcomes. Drought was a trigger, not a sufficient cause.
Copyright (c) 2026 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The forthcoming issue of the International Journal of History & Archaeological Research Studies (IJHARS) brings together a compelling collection of research that bridges ancient civilizations, ritual landscapes, gendered power structures, and the urgent contemporary challenge of heritage preservation in conflict zones. The articles in this volume reflect the journal’s commitment to rigorous historical inquiry and innovative archaeological methodology across temporal and geographic boundaries.
Comparative Study of Heritage Destruction in the Middle East and the Balkans: Examining Patterns, Motivations, and International Responses in Different Geopolitical Contexts
This comparative study examines the deliberate destruction of cultural heritage in two major late-twentieth and early twenty-first century conflicts: the Yugoslav Wars (1991-1999) and the Islamic State (ISIS) campaigns in Iraq and Syria (2014-2017). Despite occurring in different geopolitical contexts with distinct ideological frameworks ethnic nationalism in the Balkans versus religious extremism in the Middle East both conflicts witnessed systematic targeting of cultural and religious sites as instruments of identity erasure and population displacement. The Balkans experienced what has been characterized as the greatest destruction of European cultural heritage since World War II, with over 1,200 mosques destroyed in Bosnia-Herzegovina alongside hundreds of churches and iconic structures including Mostar's sixteenth-century Old Bridge and Sarajevo's National Library. ISIS destroyed over forty major archaeological sites including the ancient Assyrian cities of Nimrud, Hatra, and Nineveh, the Roman-era city of Palmyra, and numerous mosques, churches, and museums. International responses differed markedly: the Balkans benefited from prosecutions by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), while Middle Eastern destruction prompted UN Security Council resolutions and UNESCO-led documentation initiatives. This analysis reveals heritage destruction as a calculated strategy of cultural cleansing with profound implications for international law, heritage protection frameworks, and our understanding of contemporary conflict.
Crowdsourced Cultural Heritage Preservation: Evaluating the Reliability and Impact of Crowdsourced Data and Local Community Input in Documenting Heritage Loss During Conflicts
The deliberate destruction and collateral damage to cultural heritage sites during armed conflicts represents an irreversible loss to collective human memory. This paper examines the emergence of crowdsourced documentation as a critical methodology for recording heritage loss in conflict zones, with particular focus on Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and Mali. Through analysis of documented initiatives including the ASOR Cultural Heritage Initiatives, TerraWatchers crowdsourcing platform, and community-driven documentation projects, this research evaluates both the methodological challenges and the transformative social impacts of incorporating local community participation into heritage documentation. The study demonstrates that while crowdsourced data presents epistemological concerns regarding verification and authority, it offers unprecedented temporal immediacy and cultural contextualization that traditional archaeological methods cannot achieve in active conflict zones. Community-driven documentation transforms local populations from passive victims of cultural erasure into active agents of memory preservation. This paper argues that the future of conflict heritage documentation requires hybrid methodologies integrating professional archaeological standards with democratized knowledge production through digital technologies and local participation, while carefully addressing verification protocols, power dynamics, and the social impacts of participatory documentation.
Ritual Landscapes and Sacred Spaces: A Landscape Archaeology Perspective on Megalithic and Neolithic Monument Complexes An Investigation of Spatial Organization, Phenomenology, and Social Memory in Prehistoric Ritual Sites
This paper examines ritual landscapes and sacred spaces through the lens of landscape archaeology, focusing on megalithic and Neolithic monument complexes. Drawing on theoretical frameworks from phenomenology, spatial analysis, and social memory studies, this investigation explores how prehistoric communities constructed and experienced sacred geographies. The analysis incorporates case studies from Stonehenge, Avebury, the Orkney Islands, and Brú na Bóinne, demonstrating how landscape archaeology methods reveal the interconnections between monuments, topography, celestial phenomena, and social practices. Through comparative analysis of monument morphology, spatial organization, and environmental contexts, this paper argues that ritual landscapes functioned as multisensory, performative spaces encoding cosmological beliefs and social relationships. The study employs Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis, viewshed modeling, and phenomenological survey to demonstrate how monuments were positioned within carefully choreographed sacred geographies. Findings indicate that ritual landscapes operated as theaters of memory where communities negotiated identity, power, and cosmological understanding through embodied practice. This research contributes to landscape archaeology methodology by synthesizing quantitative spatial analysis with qualitative phenomenological approaches, offering new insights into how prehistoric societies conceptualized and ritualized their environments.
Gender and Power in Pre-Modern Societies: Women's Agency and Representations in Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern Legal and Literary Sources A Historical Analysis
This paper examines the complex relationship between gender and power in pre-modern societies through a comprehensive analysis of legal and literary sources from ancient, medieval, and early modern periods. Drawing on recent scholarship in feminist medieval studies, legal history, and literary criticism, this study challenges traditional narratives of universal female subordination by documenting significant variations in women's agency across different temporal, geographic, and social contexts. Through comparative analysis of Roman law, medieval English common law, and early modern European legal codes, alongside literary representations from classical antiquity through the Renaissance, this research demonstrates that women's power and autonomy were negotiated within patriarchal structures rather than simply negated by them. The study reveals that marital status, social class, and regional legal traditions created differential opportunities for women to exercise agency in property ownership, legal action, guardianship, and economic activity. Literary sources, while often reflecting male authorial perspectives, provide evidence of evolving representations of women that both reinforced and contested prevailing gender norms. This paper contributes to ongoing scholarly debates about the concept of agency in historical analysis and argues for a nuanced understanding of pre-modern gender relations that acknowledges both structural constraints and individual strategies of resistance and negotiation.
Urbanism in Antiquity: A Comparative Analysis of Urban Planning in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and Mesoamerica
This comparative analysis examines urban planning in three ancient civilizations: Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and Mesoamerica. Mesopotamian cities demonstrated organic, multi-centric development adapted to marsh environments. The Indus Valley achieved unprecedented standardization through grid layouts and comprehensive sanitation systems. Mesoamerican urbanism, exemplified by Teotihuacan, reflected cosmological principles and corporate organization. Despite temporal and spatial separation, these civilizations addressed common urban challenges through diverse solutions. Recent archaeological advances using remote sensing and paleoclimate reconstruction reveal greater urban diversity than traditional models suggest. Findings indicate that successful urbanism emerged through varied planning approaches and organizational structures, with implications for understanding ancient urban resilience and contemporary sustainability challenges.
The forthcoming issue of the International Journal of History & Archaeology Research Studies (IJHARS) brings together a diverse collection of rigorously researched articles that advance historical and archaeological inquiry through comparative, interdisciplinary, and global perspectives. The contributions in this volume collectively explore how human societies have been shaped by movement, exchange, power, memory, and material culture across time and space. Several articles engage with large-scale historical processes, including comparative analyses of slavery and forced labor systems across Atlantic, Arab, and Asian worlds, offering critical insights that challenge Eurocentric narratives and highlight interconnected global economies. Complementing this, studies on ancient maritime trade routes draw on archaeological evidence from shipwrecks and port excavations to reconstruct complex networks of commerce and cultural transmission across the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, and South China Sea.
Funding Mechanisms and Economic Impacts of Reconstructing Cultural Sites: The Role of International Aid, Tourism, and Local Investment in Post-War Heritage Economies
This paper examines the economic implications of different funding mechanisms employed in post-war cultural heritage reconstruction, analyzing how international aid, tourism development, and local investment strategies influence both immediate reconstruction outcomes and long-term economic sustainability. Through comparative analysis of reconstruction projects in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq, and Afghanistan, this study reveals that funding source diversity correlates with enhanced economic resilience and community ownership. The research demonstrates that while international aid provides essential initial capital, tourism-based funding creates sustainable revenue streams, and local investment ensures cultural authenticity and community engagement. The paper argues that hybrid funding models combining all three mechanisms generate the most robust economic outcomes, though success depends critically on institutional capacity, security conditions, and stakeholder coordination. These findings contribute to development economics literature by highlighting the unique economic characteristics of cultural heritage as both public good and economic asset, with implications for post-conflict reconstruction policy and heritage management strategies.
Reconstructing Ancient Trade Routes Through Shipwrecks and Port Excavations: Archaeological Evidence from the Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, and South China Sea
This paper examines how maritime archaeological evidence from shipwrecks and port excavations illuminates the structure and dynamics of ancient trade networks across three major maritime regions. Through systematic analysis of ceramic assemblages, ship construction techniques, and port infrastructure, archaeological data reveals complex patterns of cultural exchange, technological transfer, and economic interaction spanning from the Classical period through the medieval era. The research demonstrates that maritime archaeology provides unique insights into trade route chronology, cargo composition, and the social dimensions of ancient commerce that complement and often challenge textual historical accounts. Key findings indicate that trade networks were more interconnected and culturally heterogeneous than previously understood, with evidence of regular trans-oceanic contact and standardized commercial practices across vast geographical distances. This study contributes to our understanding of ancient globalization processes and the role of maritime trade in cultural transmission.
Copyright (c) 2025 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Diaspora Involvement in Heritage Reconstruction: The Role of Displaced Communities in Shaping Narratives and Priorities in Heritage Recovery
This paper examines the complex relationship between diaspora communities and heritage reconstruction processes, analyzing how displaced populations influence narrative construction and priority determination in heritage recovery initiatives. Through theoretical analysis grounded in postcolonial theory and diaspora studies, this research demonstrates that diaspora involvement fundamentally transforms heritage reconstruction from mere physical restoration to active processes of cultural renegotiation and identity formation. The analysis reveals that displaced communities operate as both preservers and innovators of cultural heritage, creating hybrid narratives that challenge traditional authenticity paradigms while establishing new frameworks for cultural continuity. This study contributes to heritage studies by illuminating the dynamic interplay between displacement, memory, and cultural reconstruction, offering implications for policy makers, heritage professionals, and diaspora communities engaged in reconstruction efforts.
Archaeogenetics and Cultural Identity: Genomic Evidence in Tracing Human Migration, Intermarriage, and Cultural Transmission
The emergence of archaeogenetics as a discipline has fundamentally transformed our understanding of human migration patterns, cultural transmission, and identity formation throughout prehistory and history. This paper examines how genomic evidence illuminates the complex relationships between genetic ancestry, cultural practices, and identity construction across diverse temporal and geographical contexts. Through analysis of ancient DNA studies, population genomics, and archaeological correlations, this research demonstrates that cultural identity formation involves intricate processes of migration, intermarriage, and selective cultural transmission that cannot be reduced to simple genetic determinism. The evidence reveals that while genetic admixture often accompanies cultural change, the relationship between biological ancestry and cultural identity remains complex and contextually dependent. These findings have profound implications for contemporary debates about ethnicity, nationalism, and cultural authenticity, suggesting that modern identity categories often oversimplify the dynamic, interconnected nature of human cultural and biological heritage.
Global Histories of Slavery and Forced Labor: A Comparative Analysis of Atlantic, Arab, and Asian Systems
This paper examines the historical development and operational structures of slavery and forced labor systems across Atlantic, Arab, and Asian contexts from approximately 700 CE to the early 20th century. Through comparative historical analysis, it interrogates how these systems were established, maintained, and eventually transformed or abolished. The research identifies key divergences in ideological justifications, socioeconomic functions, and mechanisms of control across these systems, while also highlighting significant parallels in how forced labor was integrated into broader economic networks. The analysis reveals that while Atlantic slavery became distinctly racialized and plantation-oriented, Arab and Asian systems frequently operated within more complex hierarchies of dependency and service. This paper contributes to scholarly discourse by demonstrating how comparative study challenges Eurocentric narratives and illuminates the complex interplay between local conditions and global economic forces in shaping diverse unfree labor regimes. These findings emphasize the importance of examining slavery as both a localized practice and a globalized phenomenon constituted by interconnected economic networks and cultural exchanges.
The International Journal of History and Archaeological Research Studies is pleased to present its new issue, bringing together a wide-ranging collection of scholarship that traverses empires, oceans, artistic traditions, material cultures, and methodological debates. The articles in this volume reflect the journal’s commitment to advancing historical and archaeological inquiry through interdisciplinary perspectives, critical reflection, and global comparativism.
Material Culture and Identity Construction: Artifacts, Clothing, and Architecture as Expressions of Ethnicity, Status, and Belief Systems
This paper examines the fundamental relationship between material culture and identity construction, analyzing how artifacts, clothing, and architecture function as powerful mediums for expressing and negotiating ethnicity, social status, and belief systems. Drawing upon anthropological, archaeological, and sociological frameworks, this study explores the theoretical underpinnings of material culture studies and presents detailed analyses of case studies spanning diverse cultural contexts. The research demonstrates that material objects are not merely passive reflections of identity but active agents in the construction, maintenance, and transformation of individual and collective identities. Through examination of contemporary and historical examples, this paper argues that material culture serves as a dynamic communicative system that both reinforces existing social hierarchies and provides opportunities for identity negotiation and resistance. The findings contribute to our understanding of how humans invest objects with meaning and utilize material expressions to navigate complex social relationships and cultural boundaries.
Copyright (c) 2025 Georgekutty M D (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Decolonizing Archaeological Methodologies: Critical Reflection on Western Frameworks in Interpreting Indigenous Sites in Africa, Oceania, and the Americas
This paper examines the persistent colonial legacies embedded within contemporary archaeological methodologies and their impact on the interpretation of indigenous sites across Africa, Oceania, and the Americas. Through critical analysis of epistemological assumptions underpinning Western archaeological frameworks, this research demonstrates how these approaches often marginalize indigenous knowledge systems and perpetuate power imbalances in knowledge production. The paper argues that meaningful decolonization of archaeological practice requires more than superficial inclusion of indigenous perspectives; rather, it necessitates fundamental restructuring of disciplinary methodologies and theoretical foundations. By analyzing case studies from regions with distinct colonial histories, this research identifies emerging decolonial methodologies that center indigenous ontologies, challenge extractive research models, and reconceptualize the relationship between archaeologists, indigenous communities, and material heritage. The implications extend beyond academic discourse to ethics, heritage management policies, and the broader politics of knowledge production in a postcolonial context. This theoretical contribution provides a framework for archaeological practice that embraces epistemic plurality while confronting the discipline's colonial entanglements.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jipson C G (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Evolution of Indian Classical Music and Dance Forms: Traditional Essence in Contemporary Contexts
This paper examines the evolution of Indian classical music and dance forms through historical, cultural, and aesthetic lenses. Focusing on the tension between preservation and innovation, it analyzes how these art forms have adapted to changing sociopolitical contexts while maintaining their core philosophical and structural elements. Through examination of the Hindustani and Carnatic music traditions alongside major classical dance forms including Bharatanatyam, Kathak, and Odissi, this research demonstrates that processes of codification, revival, and contemporary reinterpretation have characterized evolution in Indian classical arts. The analysis reveals that rather than representing a linear progression, the development of these art forms reflects complex negotiations between tradition and modernity, religious and secular contexts, and regional and global influences. This understanding contributes to broader scholarly discourse on cultural preservation, artistic adaptation, and the continuing relevance of traditional art forms in contemporary society.
Copyright (c) 2025 Liji K (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Indian Ocean Trade Networks and Their Socioeconomic Impact on Medieval India (900-1500 CE)
This paper examines the multifaceted impact of Indian Ocean trade networks on medieval India between the 10th and 15th centuries, a period characterized by significant commercial expansion and cross-cultural exchange. Through analysis of archaeological evidence, textual sources, and maritime histories, this study investigates how participation in these extensive trade networks transformed India's economy, urban development, social structures, and cultural landscape. The research demonstrates that Indian Ocean commerce generated profound changes in medieval Indian societies through the establishment of cosmopolitan port cities, the creation of merchant communities with transoceanic connections, the facilitation of cultural and religious transmission, and the reconfiguration of political economies along the subcontinent's coastline. Rather than representing a peripheral activity, maritime trade emerges as a central force in shaping medieval India's development, challenging land-centric historiographical approaches and highlighting the importance of oceanic connections in understanding the subcontinent's medieval history. This perspective contributes to broader scholarly discourse on premodern globalization, the relationship between commerce and state formation, and the historical origins of economic interdependence in the Indian Ocean world.
Copyright (c) 2025 Vinodkumar Kallolickal (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Overview
The Ottoman Empire, one of the most enduring and influential entities in world history, spanned over six centuries, leaving an indelible mark across three continents. Founded in 1299 by Osman I, it swiftly evolved into a formidable power defined by military brilliance, innovative governance, and a fusion of diverse cultures. This article examines the rise, golden era, and eventual decline of the Ottoman Empire, highlighting its critical role in shaping global history. During its Golden Age, particularly under the leadership of Mehmed II and Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire achieved remarkable feats in architecture, the arts, governance, and military conquests. Positioned as a nexus between East and West, the Ottomans played a crucial role in fostering intercultural exchanges, leaving a lasting influence on various regions' traditions and institutions. The article delves into the empire’s challenges in its later centuries, including internal divisions, economic difficulties, and the growing dominance of European powers. Reformative movements, such as the Tanzimat period, sought to modernize the empire, yet these efforts revealed its deep-rooted structural weaknesses. The Ottoman Empire’s involvement in World War I and the subsequent Treaty of Sèvres signalled its dissolution, paving the way for the formation of modern Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, whose secular reforms marked a sharp departure from Ottoman customs. The legacy of the Ottoman Empire endures in its architectural achievements, its administrative frameworks, and its pivotal role in the preservation and dissemination of knowledge. The empire’s inclusive governance, which embraced a wide range of ethnic and religious communities, stands as a historical example of pluralism and tolerance. This study underscores the Ottoman Empire's resilience, adaptability, and lasting impact, positioning it as a key chapter in world history. By exploring both its triumphs and trials, this article offers valuable insights into the intricacies of empire-building and the factors that contributed to the longevity and eventual downfall of such a vast, multi-ethnic entity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Manoj T R (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
We are pleased to present the latest issue of the International Journal of History and Archaeology Research Studies (IJHARS), a publication committed to the advancement of scholarly inquiry into the multifaceted dimensions of the human past. This issue brings together a diverse and thought-provoking collection of articles that traverse time, space, and discipline, offering deep insights into ancient civilisations, indigenous systems of knowledge, cultural developments, and the evolution of human practices.
The Chera Dynasty, a prominent and significant ruling authority in ancient South India, exemplifies the region's political acumen and cultural richness. This dynasty thrived from the 4th century BCE until the 12th century CE, significantly influencing the culture, trade, and architectural heritage of Tamilakam. The Cheras, famous for their shrewd administration, vast trading networks, and support of literature, significantly impacted the socio-political and economic landscape of their day. Positioned strategically along the Malabar Coast, the Cheras became a crucial element in the network of historic marine trade. Their maritime skills facilitated active economic interactions with the Roman Empire, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Valuable commodities like black pepper, esteemed lumber, and ivory emerged as their hallmark exports, solidifying their position as essential intermediaries in international trade. These commercial exchanges not only augmented their wealth but also enabled cultural assimilation, integrating foreign influences into the fabric of their culture. The Cheras developed an intricate government scheme that balanced centralised power with local management. This framework created stability, promoting unity throughout their realm. Their acceptance of religious pluralism further improved societal balance. By embracing Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, they fostered an atmosphere of inclusivity that supported societal harmony. The decline of the Chera Dynasty, caused by internal strife and external invasions, signified the conclusion of their direct governance, however did not diminish their legacy. Their lasting contributions to Tamil literature, grand temple building, and complex socio-economic systems resonated through later centuries, significantly impacting following dynasties and the overall history of South India.The Chera Dynasty's profound influence on the cultural, economic, and political development of Tamilakam is incalculable. Their crucial position in the interconnected environment of the ancient Indian Ocean globe highlights their historical significance as architects of a dynamic and resilient civilisation.
The Pandya Dynasty: Scholars and Warriors
The Pandya Dynasty, one of the earliest political entities in southern India, profoundly impacted the region's cultural, political, and artistic landscape. This article analyses the varied achievements of the dynasty, highlighting their influence during the Sangam period, a pivotal era for the evolution of Tamil identity and literature. It examines the integration of supernatural and political themes in the government and cultural expressions of the Pandya rulers, as illustrated in works like Cilapattikāram. The article highlights the dynasty's architectural achievements, including prominent temples such as the Meenakshi Amman Temple, and its impact on regional identity. Additionally, it analyses the geographical extent and interactions of the Pandyas with adjacent entities, emphasising their historical significance. This study emphasises the enduring impact of the Pandya Dynasty on South Indian history by examining their contributions to Tamil literature, art, and architecture.
The Historical Evolution of Sports Through Ethans
The history of sports provides a detailed account of humanity's persistent relationship with physical activity, competitiveness, and cultural expression. This article examines the progression of sports, starting from their ancient roots as survival strategies and ceremonial activities, advancing through the organised games and competitions of mediaeval and Renaissance Europe, and concluding with the formation of contemporary sports in the 19th century. It analyses the crucial significance of codification, the establishment of regulatory organisations, and the expansion of both team and individual sports, such as football, basketball, tennis, and athletics.The globalisation of sports is emphasised, particularly through international tournaments such as the Olympics and World Cups, which demonstrate their role in promoting cross-cultural exchange and unifying many cultures. Additionally, the article reflects on how sports represent socioeconomic improvements, technological progress, and altering cultural ideals. This study highlights the importance of sports as a transformative influence on civilisations by offering a historical perspective and anticipates future trends in sports history research, fostering a greater understanding of this essential facet of human existence.
Investigating the Origins and Geographic Distribution of the Mayan Civilization
The Maya civilisation, a prominent society that flourished for almost three thousand years in Mesoamerica, is renowned for its massive architecture, complex intellectual systems, and sophisticated socio-political structures. This analysis examines the transformative evolution of the Maya civilisation across the Preclassic, Classic, and Postclassic periods, emphasising their remarkable ability to adapt to diverse environments and significant hurdles. The Maya effectively utilised the natural diversity of their environment-mountains, rivers, and dense forests-spanning the Yucatán Peninsula and extending into Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador to establish prosperous towns. These towns were marked by their innovative use of environmental resources, enhancing agricultural output, promoting trade, and facilitating interconnection. Through adept landscape alterations, including terracing, wetland agriculture, and the creation of extensive road networks, they facilitated the growth of people that, at their peak, numbered in the millions. Climate variability significantly influenced their farming practices. Severe droughts required a deliberate adaptation in agricultural methods, including the growth of resilient crops such as maize. The Maya constructed advanced water management systems, including reservoirs, canals, and terraces, to address the challenges of drought and flooding in their tropical lowland regions. The civilization's extensive trading networks, supported by land routes and river channels, connected remote regions, allowing for a vibrant flow of goods, ideas, and cultural influences. Nonetheless, despite these achievements, the Maya had considerable environmental and internal challenges. Deforestation, soil degradation, and prolonged droughts, exacerbated by socio-political turmoil and resource conflicts, gradually led to their collapse. This examination highlights the Maya's exceptional inventiveness and tenacity in facing environmental challenges, while also emphasising the intrinsic vulnerabilities of their society structures. The lasting legacy of the Maya is seen in their contemporary descendants and the permanent influence of their cultural, scientific, and architectural advancements. This examination of the Maya's deep connection with their environment provides enduring insights relevant to modern issues in sustainability and climate resilience.
The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Pre-Colonial Indian Medicine and Healing Practices
This research article examines the rich tradition of indigenous medical knowledge in pre-colonial India, exploring how various healing systems developed, evolved, and were transmitted across generations. The study investigates the philosophical underpinnings of Ayurveda, Siddha, and folk medicine traditions, analyzing their holistic approaches to health and healing. By examining primary texts, archaeological evidence, and cultural practices, this article demonstrates how indigenous knowledge systems were deeply embedded in local ecologies and social structures. The research highlights the sophisticated understanding of pharmacology, diagnostic methods, and preventive healthcare that existed in pre-colonial India, challenging Eurocentric narratives that have historically diminished the scientific validity of these traditions. This study contributes to a growing body of scholarship that recognizes the historical significance and continued relevance of indigenous knowledge in global medical history.
The first edition of the International Journal of History and Archaeology Research Studies (IJHARS) is presented with great pride and excitement. In order to celebrate the diversity of human experience across time and space, this journal seeks to provide a lively forum for the investigation and debate of various historical and archaeological narratives.
Exploring the Evolution of Weaponry: From the Stone Age to Modern Times
This study examines the significant evolution of weaponry from the periods preceding and following the Stone Age, highlighting the transition from basic tools to sophisticated arms. In the Stone Age, early people utilized natural resources like stone, wood, and bone to fabricate essential survival tools. These weapons—spears, hand axes, and arrows—were crucial for hunting and defence. Notwithstanding their simplicity, these tools demonstrated exceptional innovation; each design emphasised practicality and efficiency. Spears, for instance, possessed keen stone tips that allowed hunters to confront enormous game while preserving a safe distance. Likewise, hand axes, adaptable in their use, functioned as implements for chopping, excavating, and several other activities essential to daily life. The narrative advances into the post-Stone Age period, characterized by significant technological and artisanal innovations. The emergence of metallurgy, especially the use of copper, bronze, and iron, signified a transformation in weapon manufacturing. Metal implements and weapons exceeded their stone equivalents in strength, durability, and versatility, facilitating reshaping and sharpening as required. This period marked the emergence of swords, shields, and armour, indicating both practical advancement and the complexity of military strategies. The bow and arrow experienced innovations that provided greater accuracy and increased range, while the advent of siege apparatus like catapults and battering rams highlighted a strategic transformation in warfare, emphasising the breach of constructed defences. These innovations significantly influenced the development of human societies. They enabled territorial expansion, impacted commercial networks, and integrated into cultural traditions. Weapons transcended their functional use, serving as symbols of authority and rank, embodying both practicality and symbolism. The evolution from rudimentary stone implements to sophisticated armaments illustrates humanity's unwavering pursuit of advancement, reflecting flexibility and the persistent endeavour to prosper in the face of changing difficulties and conditions.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dr. Sajeer S (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Divine Designs: The Evolution of Temple Art in Bharat
The evolution of temple art in Bharat has remarkably merged the ethos of culture, art and spirit over many centuries. In this article, the temple architecture has been traced from the early religious structures of the Indus Valley civilization to the magnificent monuments of the Gupta, Chollaand Vijayanagara periods. It highlights the main architectural styles-Nagara, Dravida and Vesara and their distinctive features illustrating the regional diversity in design, symbolization and creativity. The study discusses the intricate carvings, motifs, and ornamentation of temples, which are often overlooked. They play an essential role in the temple’s spirituality and functioning as a center for social and economic activities. It also analyses the impact of exterior cultures during the Islamic and colonial eras, demonstrating the tenacity of temple art in maintaining its identity while adapting to evolving surroundings. These temples, as guardians of India’s cultural history, represent the convergence of devotion, art, and architecture, exemplifying the lasting legacy of Bharat’s varied traditions. The paper emphasis the critical necessity for conservation initiatives to safeguard these architectural masterpieces in the face of modernization and environmental problems, so securing their importance for future generations.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ms.Dalia Varghese (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Ancient Universities of Bharat: Centers of Knowledge and Learning
Ancient Bharat, which is now known as India, was home to a number of illustrious educational institutions that made significant contributions to the development of education, philosophy, science, and culture through their contributions. This article investigates the historical context and relevance of a number of well-known ancient institutions, including Takshashila, Nalanda, Vikramshila, Vallabhi, Odantapuri, and Somapura Mahavihara, among others. From the sixth century BCE until the twelfth century CE, these institutions flourished, attracting intellectuals from all over the world and fostering an environment that encouraged intellectual exchange and invention. They provided instruction in a diverse variety of fields, including as philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and the fine arts, and they made significant contributions to these areas of study. Despite the fact that these universities eventually fell into disuse as a result of invasions and other sociopolitical causes, the legacy they left behind continues to have an impact on contemporary educational paradigms. These institutions laid the groundwork for higher education systems all around the world by placing an emphasis on interdisciplinary learning, interactions between teachers and students, and holistic development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dr Manoj T R (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Religious Traditions and Cultural Confluence in India’s North-East
India’s North-East region is home to at least two hundred ethnic communities with a rich cultural heritage. The cultural landscape presents a picture of diverse Indo-Mongoloid groups of people known as Kiratas in Sanskrit literature, who are settled in different habitats and ecological settings. The region has been a ‘melting pot’ of multi-cultural groups from mainland India and South-East Asia through various periods of its history. Among the clan-based societies, the life-style of the people largely conform to belief in spirits and ancestors. Brahmanical ideology made a deep impact on the history and culture of the people, particularly in the valleys of Assam and Manipur. The process of acculturation of the tribal and non-tribal is also the result of interaction with the tenets of Islam, Buddhism and Christianity. This study seeks to explore the myriad religious traditions of North-East India and the resultant vibrant cultural confluence from a historical perspective. It will gain insights into the ways in which the people have accommodated the new belief systems within the larger framework of their traditional religion-cultural practices.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rena Laisram (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0